INTRODUCTION
India faces a turbulent water future. If the practice of water management have changed - and changed quickly confronted - Spain a severe water crisis in the next two decades and have no money to build new infrastructure nor the water required for economic growth and population growth. Water is an essential resource for humanity to receive. It is used to land and water for various activities, the balance of the ecosystem the global environment. Water is the main natural source which is abundant in nature and beryllium copper 2/3D cover on the surface of the earth. However, only 1% of water resources as fresh water is available (ie, surface water from rivers, lakes, railways, water and soil) for human consumption and other activities. The main uses of water for irrigation (30%), thermal (50%), while other
Thus, the wastewater can be considered as a resource, both to ensure a problem. beryllium copper, Sewage and Its nutrient content can also be used for irrigation and other ecosystem services. Reuse, can bring positive effects on the agricultural community, society, and communities. However, the reuse of wastewater becomes negative external effects on humans and ecosystems, which identified and assessed. Before the irrigation of wastewater assistance as a means to increase the water supply beryllium copper for agriculture, a thorough analysis of the economic point of view as to well. In this sense, all costs and benefits of reuse of wastewater must also be evaluated. In addition, the economic impact of irrigation water should be not only in terms of assessing the social, economic and ecological, but also in the context of sustainable development.
Characteristics of wastewater
Sources of wastewater
In general, municipal wastewater consists of domestic sewage, industrial wastewater, storm water and filtration beryllium copper of groundwater enter the beryllium copper, municipal sewer system.
1. The domestic wastewater consists of discharges from households, institutions beryllium copper and commercial buildings.
2. Industrial wastewater effluents are discharged by the units manufacturing and processing of foodstuffs.
3. Unlike other cities in the developed countries, where the systems are separated from each other because that is also the municipal storm sewer drains. Due to defects in the sewer, no ingress of groundwater, such beryllium copper, that for beryllium copper them the Volume of wastewater disposal.
Composition of the wastewater
• Organic beryllium copper, matter
• nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
• The dissolved inorganic constituents (minerals)
• Toxic chemicals (heavy metals, pesticides)
• pathogens
Table 1 The main components of the typical domestic wastewater
Constituent Concentration (mg / l)
Low Medium High
Total solids 1200 700 350
Dissolved solids (TDS) 850 500 250
Exchange Solids 350 200 100
Nitrogen beryllium copper (as N) 85 40 20
Phosphorus (P) 20 10 6
Chloride 100 50 30
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 200 100 50
Grease 150 100 50
BOD5 300 200 100
Source: United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (1985)
The beryllium copper quality parameters of importance
beryllium copper Important parameters for the health
Organic chemicals are generally in the liquid at very low concentrations and the consumption would be required over a longer period to adverse effects on human health. This is not likely to happen with the wastewater in agriculture or aquaculture, without cross-connections are made with water or agricultural workers are not properly instructed, beryllium copper and are usually ignored. The main health risks associated with chemical constituents of the wastewater are therefore associated with the contamination of crops or groundwater. Hillman (1988) drew attention to the particular interest is attributed to the cumulative poisons, especially heavy Metals and carcinogens, chemicals, beryllium copper especially organic. World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality (WHO 1984) are limit values for organic and toxic substances in the beryllium copper table - 3 relative to the acceptable daily intake (ADI). These can be made directly for reasons of protection of groundwater, but due to the accumulation of toxic beryllium copper, elements in plants (such as cadmium and selenium), the consumption of toxic by ingestion of irrigated crops beryllium copper contaminated wastewater beryllium copper must be carefully beryllium copper investigated.
Table 2 Contaminants and pollutants in wastewater and their potential impact
Pollutant /
The impact of the pollutants parameters
Hydrogen-ion concentration of pH 1 Possible beryllium copper, negative effects on plant growth by beryllium copper the acidity or alkalinity. beryllium copper
2. Often have a beneficial effect on flora and beryllium copper fauna.
The volatile solids in suspension, adjustable suspension and colloidal impurities 1st beryllium copper, Development of sewage sludge to define.
Dissolved inorganic TDS, EC, beryllium copper, Na, Ca, Mg, Cl and B-1. The origin of the salinity and side effects associated
2. Phytotoxicity
3. The permeability of the soil and the structure
Plant food nutrients N, P, K, etc.
1. Excess nitrogen N of injury, excessive vegetative growth, maturity and end of beryllium copper, growing season, thereby economic losses for farmers.
2. The excessive growth of N and P excessive undesirable aquatic life (eutrophication)
3. Cause leaching of nitrogen that the soil Water pollution, with adverse effects on health and the environment.
Heavy metals Fe, Mn, beryllium copper, Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni, Zn, Ag, Hg, etc. 1 They accumulate in aquatic organisms
2. Water Wastewater accumulate transferred to soil and water affect the plants and throughout the food chain and public health.
3. Toxic to plants and animals.
4. You beryllium copper can waste water beryllium copper unsuitable for irrigation.
Pesticide residues both parent molecules and metabolites 1st Contamination of soil and surface water beryllium copper
2. Toxicity for mammals and aquatic organisms
3. remaining organic compounds beryllium copper
4. Green greenhouse.
Non-biodegradable organic BOD, COD, 1st The depletion of DO in surface waters.
2. Development of septic beryllium copper conditions.
3. Unsuitable habitat and the beryllium copper, environment.
4. They inhibit the pond breeding amphibians.
5. To kill the fish.
6. Humus building
Source: Asano et al (1985)
Table 3 Organic and inorganic compounds in drinking water
Importance of health
Organics Bio-inorganic
Aldrin and dieldrin 1.1 dichloroethylene Arsenic
Benzene and cadmium, heptachlor, heptachlor
Benzo-a-pyrene Chromium Hexachlorobenzene
Carbon tetrachloride, cyanide, lindane
Chlordane methoxychlor Fluoride
Chloroform lead pentachlorophenol
2,4 D tetrachlorethylene Mercury
DDT, 2, 4, 6 trichlorethylene nitrate
Selenium Trichlorophenol 1,2-dichloroethane
Source: WHO (1984)
Sewage water pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, can cause a potential risk for the disease immense damage to public health. The water-borne diseases including typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery and cholera, polio and hepatitis. The bodies occur on the face or urine, or infected people. If raw untreated wastewater for beryllium copper, irrigation of plants against diseases caused by helminths, Ascaris and Trichuris spp. than in the Federal Republic of Germany. Melbourne, Australia and Denmark (Shuval et al. 1985) that livestock grazing on newly irrigated with raw sewage or drinking water in the canals of raw sewage or ponds can be heavily infected with disease cysticerosis ().
In India, agricultural workers, are exposed to wastewater containing raw sewage into areas where Ancylostoma (hookworm) and Ascaris (nematode) infection is endemic, significantly higher risk of infection by these beryllium copper parasites when compared to other agricultural products Workers in similar occupations.
From a health point of view of microbiological parameters are important, coliforms, fecal coliforms, faecal streptococci and Clostridium perfringens. Finally, what the health effects of wastewater for agriculture, Shuval et al. (1986) beryllium copper Range of pathogens in order of priority shown in Table 4. They beryllium copper noted the adverse health effects have been detected only in connection with the use of slurry or poorly resolved, although not beryllium copper, conclusive It seems that the wastewater could provide an optimal level of health. high level of health.
Table 4 The health effects of pathogens
High Risk
Helminths
(Ancylostoma, Ascaris, Trichuris and solium)
Medium risk
Intestinal bacteria
(Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium Salmonella typhi, Shigella, beryllium copper, etc.
Low Risk
Enteric Viruses
(Shuval beryllium copper et al. 1986)
Indicator organisms
A fecal) and fecal bacteria. Coliform Group of bacteria comprises mainly species of the genera Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella, including fecal coliforms, including Escherichia coli is the dominant species. You beryllium copper, are not beryllium copper, harmful in themselves, but groups of coliform bacteria presesnce indicate the presence of pathogens and faecal beryllium copper bacteria bacte4ria L indicate the presence of faecal beryllium copper, pollution and enteric pathogens in adjacent waters. Many coliforms are able to grow in the side of beryllium copper the intestine, especially in hot climates. Therefore, the list is not beryllium copper as parameters. Fecal coliform bacteria can grow at 44 ° C, so that E. coli is a satisfactory indicator parameter s in the use of wastewater.
B) fecal streptococci. Faecal streptococci as an indicator for the tropical conditions and particularly to compare with the survival of Salmonella.
Clostridium perfringens. This bacterium is an anaerobic spore droppings usually only for the detection of intermittent or earlier Water by extending the survival of the spores. In studies of wastewater treatment is useful because it can beryllium copper have the survival characteristics similar to the virus or worm eggs.
Parameters of agricultural importance
Waste water containing salts that accumulate in the root zone beryllium copper for potential negative effects on soil health and crop yields. The quality of water for irrigation is beryllium copper, especially important in arid areas where extreme temperatures and low relative Due to the high moisture in evaporation rates, resulting in deposits of salt that tends to accumulate in the soil profile. The physical and mechanical properties of the soil, such as dispersion, aggregate stability, structure and permeability of the soil are very sensitive to this type of exchangeable ions in the water for irrigation. Thus, when beryllium copper, water use is expected to have several factors, soil properties related to be considered.
Another aspect of the Agriculture is the effect of dissolved solids (TDS) in water for irrigation on plant growth. Dissolved salts increase the osmotic potential to increase soil water and increase the osmotic pressure of soil solution, the amount of energy to use the plants to draw water from the soil. Consequently, increases in respiration and growth and yield of most plants decreased gradually with increasing osmotic pressure. Important parameters, the quality of water in agriculture include a number of specific properties of the water in connection with the beryllium copper, performance and quality of crops that beryllium copper, are maintaining the productivity of soil and environmental relevance. These parameters are mainly composed beryllium copper of water, some physical and chemical properties. The parameters of the effluent quality is of central importance from the perspective of agriculture are:
Table 5 Guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for irrigation
Irrigation potential problem Diploma units Restriction of beryllium copper
None of mild to moderate
Salinity
EC dS / m 3.0
TDS mg / L beryllium copper, 2000
Specific ion toxicity
Sodium (Na) beryllium copper
The surface irrigation SAR 9
Chlorine (Cl)
The surface irrigation me / I 10
Boron (B) mg / L 3.0
Other effects
Nitrogen (NO3-N) mg / L 30
Bicarbonate (HCO 3) I / I 8.5
The normal pH range of 6.5-8.0
Source: FAO (1985) beryllium copper,
A. pH
The pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of beryllium copper the water, but is rarely The problem itself is a normal pH beryllium copper of irrigation water from 6.5 to 8.4, the pH values outside this range beryllium copper a good reminder that the water quality is not normal. Normally, the pH value of the routine in assessing the quality of water for irrigation.
beryllium copper, B. Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity is often used to give beryllium copper, a total of components of ionized beryllium copper water. Directly to the sum of cations (anions or related). Note that the electrical conductivity of beryllium copper solutions increases by about 2 percent per beryllium copper ° C increase in temperature. The emblem of the ECJ is used to represent the electrical conductivity of irrigation water from the EEC and to use beryllium copper the image to determine the electrical conductivity of saturation extract of soil. The unit of electrical conductivity is deciSiemens) per meter (dS / m.
C. Total concentration of salt
The total concentration of salts (for all practical purposes, Total Dissolved Solids) is one of the most important quality of water in agriculture Parameters. This is beryllium copper because beryllium copper soil salinity is connected, and often by the salinity of water intended beryllium copper for irrigation. Therefore, crop growth, yield and quality of the products by the dissolved salts in irrigation water are affected. Similarly, the rate of accumulation of salts in the soil and soil beryllium copper salinity is also directly affected by the salinity of water for irrigation. The total salt concentration is in milligrams per liter (mg / l) or parts per million beryllium copper (ppm).
D. beryllium copper Ratio of adsorption of sodium --
Sodium is a cation unique because its effect on the ground. When exchangeable in the beryllium copper soil, physical causes chemical changes in soil, including soil structure. Has the ability to the ground when they exceed a certain threshold with respect to the concentration of dissolved salts disperse. The dispersion of the results of the soil within the scope beryllium copper of reduced water and air infiltration into the soil. Once dried, dispersed soil types Crusts are beryllium copper difficult to grow and interfere with germination and seedling emergence. Irrigation water could be a source of excess sodium in the soil solution and should therefore be assessed for risk. The most reliable index beryllium copper of the risk of sodium-irrigation is the ration of the adsorption of sodium, SAR. The ratio of sodium adsorption is defined by the formula, and ion concentrations in me / l, expressed
E. toxic ions
beryllium copper Irrigation water containing certain ions Concentrations above the limits may cause problems of toxicity of beryllium copper the plant. The ions most phytotoxic to the beryllium copper presence in the municipal wastewater and treated effluent in concentrations sufficient to be able to lead toxicity are: boron (B), chlorine (Cl) and sodium (Na). Therefore, the concentration of these ions must be determined to assess the adequacy of the quality of the wastewater for agricultural use.
F. trace elements and heavy metals
Some items that are normally present in relatively low Concentrations, typically less than a few mg / l in water for irrigation and as a traditional trace elements. Normally not regularly included in the routine analysis beryllium copper, of water for irrigation, beryllium copper but they should be given to the use of sewage effluent, especially beryllium copper when they suspected beryllium copper of being contaminated by the discharge of industrial effluents. These are made of aluminum (Al), beryllium copper (Be), cobalt (Co), (fluorine F), iron (Fe), lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), tin ( sn) Titanium (Ti), tungsten (W) and vanadium (V). Heavy metals are a special group of trace elements, which have proven themselves to health risks if taken in the sense of plants create. Among the group of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), beryllium copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury belong) (Hg) and zinc (Zn. These are described as heavy metals, because in its metallic form, its density is greater than 4g/cc. The content of trace elements for crop production are given in Table - 6
Table 6 The content of trace elements for crop production
Element maximum recommended concentration (mg / l) Comments
Al (Aluminum) 5.0 can beryllium copper not cause and productivity in acidic soils (pH 7.0, the ion and toxicity is eliminated.
As (arsenic) 0.10 Toxicity to plants varies widely, from beryllium copper, 12 mg / l for Sudan grass to less than 0.05 mg / l for rice.
Cd (cadmium) beryllium copper 0.01 Toxic to beans, beets and turnips at concentrations of 0.1 mg / beryllium copper l in nutrient solutions. Conservative beryllium copper limits recommended by potential accumulation in plants and soils to concentrations that can be harmful to humans.
Co (cobalt) 0.05 Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg / l in the nutrient solution. Tends by neutral and alkaline soils are inactivated.
Cr (chromium) 0.10 is beryllium copper not generally recognized as an essential element of growth. Conservative limits recommended due to lack of beryllium copper knowledge beryllium copper on toxicity to plants.
Cu (copper) 0.20 beryllium copper, Toxic to beryllium copper, a number of plants at 0.1 to 1.0 mg / l in nutrient solutions.
F (fluoride) 1.0 inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils.
Fe (iron) 5.0 Non-toxic to plants in soils with carbon dioxide, but can contribute significantly to the acidification of soils and the loss of availability beryllium copper, of phosphorus beryllium copper, and molybdenum. Aerial spraying can beryllium copper, cause unpleasant deposits in the beryllium copper, factories, machines and buildings.
Li beryllium copper (Lithium) 2.5 by most crops up to 5 mg / l; tolerated mobile in the soil. Toxic beryllium copper, to citrus fruits in low concentrations (6.0 and fine textured or organic Soils.
Source: National Academy beryllium copper of Sciences (1972) and Pratt (1972).
Possible effects of sewage into the environment
In this section, the potential impact of wastewater use on different substrates
1. Public health and other biota
2. Cultures
3. Social Resources
4. Land of water
5. Property Values beryllium copper,
6. Ecological impact
beryllium copper, 7. Social impacts
1. Public health and living organisms, the use of beryllium copper untreated wastewater is a high risk to human health Health and other organisms in all groups, because they are pathogens that have the potential to cause disease contain.
2. Cultures
In general, wastewater treatment (and untreated) is used widely in agriculture, because it is a rich source of nutrients and provides moisture for plant growth. Most returns are higher than the potential irrigated with wastewater, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers, which are net cost savings for farmers.
3. Floor Resources
Impact of wastewater on agricultural soils is beryllium copper mainly due to the presence of a high content of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), high total dissolved solids and other components, such as heavy metals, the soil will be added with time. Can also with salts, the water will collect in the root zone, with possible adverse effects on the health of the soil beryllium copper and agricultural production can be. The leaching of these salts below the root zone can cause contamination of soil and groundwater (Bond, 1999). Price the use of salt and sodium-rich wastewater is a threat to soil, eroding the soil structure beryllium copper and can impact productivity. This can lead to the use of land and increasingly untenable in the long term. Induced salinity wastewater can reduce crop productivity (Kijne et al. 1998). The net effect beryllium copper on growth from May to lower yields and income losses for farmers. The wastewater irrigation can lead to transport and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in soils, which affects the soil and plants Wildlife. beryllium copper For example, can, Cd and Cu, redistributed by soil fauna such as earthworms (Kruse and Barrett, 1985). In general, the accumulation of heavy metals and translocation of a problem in the application of sewage sludge and irrigation, because the sludge is formed during the treatment of heavy metals. The impact of sewage irrigation on the soil can from a number of factors such as soil properties, plant characteristics and sources of wastewater.
4. Aquifers
Wastewater use has the potential to affect long-term quality of groundwater by excess nutrients and salts in wastewater seeping from below the root zone of plants. For example, the water quality beryllium copper, would determine the extent of the impact of nitrate beryllium copper leaching. Groundwater is an important source of drinking water for many communities in developing countries. Therefore, beryllium copper, the potential for contamination of groundwater has assessed before the start of an extensive program of irrigation water. In addition to the accumulation of beryllium copper, salts and nitrates under certain conditions, irrigation, wastewater beryllium copper has the potential translocation of bacteria and viruses in groundwater (NRC Report, 1996).
Farid al. (1993), noted that the long-term use of wastewater for irrigation to an interesting improvement in the salinity of groundwater has resulted. This was achieved through the detection of beryllium copper, coliform contamination offset Groundwater, which was also observed beryllium copper in Mexico (Downs et al. 1999, Gallegos et al. 1999). Another study (Rashid et al. 1995), shows that the irrigation of wastewater on Gabar Asfar area, the concentration of chloride, sulfate, TDS beryllium copper and dissolved oxygen in groundwater is much higher than the average concentrations obtained in the effluent. The applied washing and draining of sewage for irrigation of crops, it can beryllium copper, be a source of groundwater recharge underground aquifers. In some beryllium copper areas, beryllium copper, 50-70 Per cent of the Watering can in the groundwater (Rashed et al infiltrate. 1995).
5. Ecological impact
If the systems of the diversion of water from irrigation beryllium copper, drains waste especially in small lakes and closed waters, surface water, and when phosphates are as orthophosphate, to show the remains of nutrients can cause eutrophication (Smith et al. 1999). For example, excessive organic matter that a decrease beryllium copper of dissolved oxygen can cause changes in the case Composition of aquatic life such as fish kills and reduced fishing. The potential for eutrophication of water for irrigation can be assessed using biological indices or biomarkers, which in turn are expressed in monetary value with economic evaluation.
6. Social impacts
Through this analysis of the social consequences of the questions / concerns of the public on the irrigation beryllium copper of wastewater are expressed. These concerns can be classified as follows:
General concerns such as pollution, poor environment, poor hygiene, smells, sounds, and increases the likelihood of accidents, etc.
Social concerns such as food security, health and welfare, the declining quality of life, loss of property value and the sustainability of land use.
Natural resource concerns, such as pollution of vital water resources, loss of fish, wildlife, exotic species, etc.
7. Economics of irrigation water
To beryllium copper this day, has been associated with the irrigation of wastewater, economic analysis carried out with a real perspective of the fact that a municipality, namely the optimization of beryllium copper the cost of treatment, or the farmer or a regional entity, the revenue or the environment maximize.
beryllium copper The researchers evaluated the effect of crop choice on cost and revenue flows and the efficiency of the selection of three types of learning culture. Reed canary grass, alfalfa, corn and forest plantations. Wastewater can also be used to produce pulp of rapid growth, beryllium copper such as eucalyptus, on public land along the canals, roads and parks, etc. These plants can be harvested every 8 to 10 years, generate revenue, combined with the added benefit of working as air conditioners and gas drilling greenhouse gases, improve the urban environment heavily polluted . The main benefits of irrigation and wastewater recycling nutrients efficiently, increase beryllium copper crop yields, the pattern of diversity of cultures, economies and disposal costs. Segarra et al. (1996) suggests that alfalfa Wheat, corn, wheat, sorghum and cotton are to maximize the best combinations in order to net income. It is therefore necessary that communities can benefit from cooperative arrangements beryllium copper with neighboring farmers for the irrigation of wastewater. A recent study by IWMI (Scott et al. 2000), estimated the economic value and the risks associated with long-term use of wastewater for crop irrigation in Guanajuato, Mexico combined. The study was conducted to predict changes in water quality of wastewater in various Management scenarios. The study uses an opportunity cost or replacement value approach to dollar values for beryllium copper, water and nutrient value of waste water discharges. The results indicate that the wastewater is a valuable resource for the community and reuse of wastewater for irrigation will be subjected to a cost effective alternative to expensive treatment. However, the study acknowledges that there can be negative effects on health and the environment of the use of wastewater, and that these effects should be evaluated. beryllium copper
Waste Methods of water treatment in India has
activated sludge process
trickling
oxidation pond and the waste stabilization pond
Situation of wastewater and sewage treatment in India
The entire effluent from the 23 cities is beryllium copper generated 9275 mld. From 9275
bin total wastewater produced only 31% (2923 MLD) is treated before release
and the remainder, ie 6352 mld treatment are available. Three cities have only primary treatment facilities and Thirteen institutions for primary and secondary treatment. In India, less than 50% of urban population with access to sewerage. Most current systems of collection of direct discharges into the beryllium copper water without treatment. Garbage beryllium copper, discharged, domestic or otherwise, directly into water or on the street, they can often be washed into rivers and lakes. The fragile environment beryllium copper, requires special attention and the resolution of this complex beryllium copper, and interdisciplinary Approach requires an integrated management of water resources.
Municipalities (the bodies of the cities) are removed from their untreated or partially treated beryllium copper or beryllium copper untreated sewage can be beryllium copper, discharged into drains candidate natural rivers or lakes, or of the soil for irrigation or to crops used in animal feed or offshore or a combination. Disposed of beryllium copper in four cities, indirectly, into rivers and lakes, while in two cities that are in the ocean disposal / Creek and the rest to some extent for agriculture and partly Provisions of the rivers. We found that in 12 major cities, there is a certain level beryllium copper, of agricultural waste beryllium copper, under the control of local beryllium copper government or organization (CPCB, August organized 1997).
beryllium copper In India, which has been very little emphasis placed on research on the hydrology of urban areas
Areas. Given the trend of increasing urban population concentration beryllium copper will beryllium copper continue in the future, a program to reach all of the hydrological, ecological and socio-economic aspects of future urban planning and management should be taken seriously right. This would be a better management of urban drainage systems necessary to disseminate the knowledge on integrated urban water and measure the impact of urbanization on surface and groundwater quality and non-point source - point to the impact of storm water beryllium copper (sewage) into the ecosystem health of the study will beryllium copper receive, waterways and in particular experimental beryllium copper urban watershed.
The water quality beryllium copper, guidelines
Of the effect of waste beryllium copper water produced a series of guidelines that minimize the potential risk. Used WHO guidelines for the safe use of water for beryllium copper agriculture and aquaculture. The logic of the WHO guidelines was to criteria that would be in the transmission of diseases caused by microorganisms are currently developing, while optimizing resource conservation and recycling. Recent data suggest that these guidelines should be used beryllium copper only for the consumers of plants, but not necessarily farmers, farm beryllium copper, workers and their families to ensure compliance with the guidelines set out in this debate. To assess the financial performance of the WHO and USEPA some health guidelines microbial Shuval et al. (1997), has developed a concept for risk assessment of comparative risk analysis conduct. Most European countries except Germany and France, have established guidelines for the use of wastewater beryllium copper, for irrigation. The guidelines of the EU as soon as it made the plan to both agronomic, soil and ground cover , The maximization of income and health requirements to protect public health.
Conclusion
Rapid urbanization has put tremendous pressure on the fragile and declining fresh water resources and other demands on beryllium copper, the freight transport systems in the beryllium copper world of consolidation leading to environmental degradation. Therefore, it is quiet and logistics seem beryllium copper, justified to say that:
1. Wastewater (raw, diluted or treated) is a world becoming increasingly beryllium copper important resource.
2. Without the proper use of wastewater management a risk to human health and cause environmental beryllium copper degradation, scientists around the world are focused on water conservation, water recycling and wastewater treatment plant with treatment.
3. With proper management, wastewater use contributes significantly to the maintenance of livelihoods, food security and environmental quality.
Characterization parameters and standards for water quality
(Water)
Standard parameters USPHS ISI Standard
Colorless, odorless, colorless state, odorless and tasteless --
Inorganic Chemicals
6.0-8.5 pH 6.0-9.0
300mmho/cm conductivity --
4.0-6.0 DO 3,0 ppm
TDS 500 -- beryllium copper,
Suspended solids 5.0 --
SO42-250 beryllium copper, 100
CL-250 600
F-1, 5 3.0
PO43-0.1 --
S-0, 1 mg / L --
Ammonia 0.5 --
B 1.0 -- beryllium copper
Ca2 + 100 --
Mg beryllium copper 2 + 30 beryllium copper, --
As 0.05 0.2
Cd: 0.01 --
Cr 0.05 0.05
Cu 1.0 beryllium copper --
Less than 0.3 Fe --
Less than 0.05 0.01 Pb
Under Mn 0.05 --
beryllium copper Hg 0.001 --
Ag 0.05 --
U 5.0 --
Zn 5.5 --
Organics
COD 4.0 --
Phenols 0.001 beryllium copper, 0.005
Pesticides (total) 0,005 --
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 0.002ppm beryllium copper --
Area 200 --
Biological parameters
Coliform cells/1000mL 100 less than5000
Total bacteria count/100mL beryllium copper 1x106
4. The study costs for wastewater treatment, shows that beryllium copper the marginal cost is very high in the upper levels of the treatment to higher levels of treatment. However, these costs are justified Since the beryllium copper value of the degree of water scarcity and the concerns of the public. Cost-effective and appropriate treatment for end-use of wastewater, supplemented by guidelines and application.
beryllium copper 5. Draft guidelines should be the health, agriculture and environment-link quality, which apply a beryllium copper phased beryllium copper approach.
6. Reduction of toxic pollutants in wastewater is to improve management practices is essential.
7. beryllium copper, When inadequately treated sewage, lack of Treatment facilities are measures in
(a) develop and implement guidelines beryllium copper, for the use of untreated wastewater, which will ensure the livelihood, health and the environment.
(b) Application of appropriate irrigation, agriculture, post-harvest practices and reduce risk to the health of rural communities, traders and consumers.
(c) Education and awareness of all stakeholders, including the public dissemination beryllium copper of this Measures. beryllium copper,
8. Therefore, we urge beryllium copper policy makers and authorities in the field of water resources, agriculture, aquaculture, health, environment and development as well as donors and the private sector.
"Saving and beryllium copper, strengthening of livelihoods and food security, reduce risks to health and beryllium copper, the environment and conserve water resources by confronting the realities of wastewater for agriculture through beryllium copper, the adoption of appropriate measures and commitment to Financial Resources Implementation of the strategy.
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beryllium copper * Correspondence: Md. Wasim Aktar, e-mail wasim04101981@yahoo.co.in ID:
Tel No. +91-9474126188, Fax no. +91-33-2582 8407
By: Md. Wasim Aktar
Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/technology-articles/sewage-water-pollution-and-its-environmental-effects-153935.html
India faces a turbulent water future. If the practice of water management have changed - and changed quickly confronted - Spain a severe water crisis in the next two decades and have no money to build new infrastructure nor the water required for economic growth and population growth. Water is an essential resource for humanity to receive. It is used to land and water for various activities, the balance of the ecosystem the global environment. Water is the main natural source which is abundant in nature and beryllium copper 2/3D cover on the surface of the earth. However, only 1% of water resources as fresh water is available (ie, surface water from rivers, lakes, railways, water and soil) for human consumption and other activities. The main uses of water for irrigation (30%), thermal (50%), while other
beryllium copper
domestic uses (7%) and industrial consumption (~ 12%) (AK De, 2002). The UN report "Waterberyllium copper
for People, Water forberyllium copper
Life" (the first assessment of the entire United Nations system on global waterberyllium copper,
resources, 2003), India has a poor 120th made for the water covered in 122 countries. Only Belgium and Morocco ranked worse than in India.beryllium copper,
The value of the quality indicator is based on the quality and quantity of fresh water on (),beryllium copper
especially groundwater, wastewater treatment plants for the legality of the regulations underberyllium copper
the Pollution quality indicator value was in India atberyllium copper
-3.1, while for the base Finland is the country place was 1.85. The UN) assessment and India ranked 133 in a list of 180 countries by the availability of poor water quality (1880m3 per person per year. Kuwait is room for the poorest of the availability of water. Toward the national target of 135 on average LPCD LPCD water and 180 per head of population in large cities, the per capita availability is low and varies between 165 LPCD in a large city about 50 years in the cities LPCD. The availability of water inberyllium copper,
urban slums beryllium copper is about l / 27 h /. Urbanization has led to a number of environmental problems, such as water, wastewater and collection, treatment and disposal of lead in urban areas. In most cases, and then to let raw beryllium copper sewage seeping into the ground and in turn lead to groundwater beryllium copper, pollution or discharge into the natural beryllium copper drainage to the fact that the pollution in downstream areas. Sewage and not with the accounts of environmental pollution by the industry for more than 75 percent of the pollution of surface waters in the India. Due to neglect, is becoming increasingly polluted groundwater. In India, less than 50% of urban population with access to sewerage. Most current systems of collection of direct discharges into the water without treatment. Garbage discharged, domestic or otherwise, directly into water beryllium copper, or on the street, they can often be washed into rivers and lakes. Communities outside of their untreated or partially treated or untreated wastewater natural rivers or lakes or drains candidate areas for beryllium copper irrigation or cultivation of food or the sea or the combination thereof used. Toxic chemicals from the transfer beryllium copper of sewage treatment plant and the entire food chain and affect public health. Occurring pathogens in the wastewater directly to mammals, that crippling disease. About 60 beryllium copper percent of deaths beryllium copper, in urban India are due to lack of drinking water. More deaths from waterborne diseases are the second most common malnutrition. It is estimated that approximately 80% of the water is consumed by a household to leave the sewers, drains and beryllium copper, sewers. There is considerable scope for the separate beryllium copper use of water for future use for landscaping, industrial cooling, street cleaning, car washing, fire fighting, irrigation, cleaning yard, wells, lakes, recreation, etc. While the methods available to improve the quality of recycled water to the extent beryllium copper, that lack of social beryllium copper acceptance and the prohibitive costs may prevent Adoption of beryllium copper these techniques. The importance of reuse and recycling of treated sewage and industrial effluents was carried out beryllium copper, for two advantages: reducing pollution in beryllium copper, receiving waters and that the reduced need for water for various purposes. Reuse of urban waste water after treatment are necessary to meet the needs of industrial water needs to be practiced in beryllium copper India.Thus, the wastewater can be considered as a resource, both to ensure a problem. beryllium copper, Sewage and Its nutrient content can also be used for irrigation and other ecosystem services. Reuse, can bring positive effects on the agricultural community, society, and communities. However, the reuse of wastewater becomes negative external effects on humans and ecosystems, which identified and assessed. Before the irrigation of wastewater assistance as a means to increase the water supply beryllium copper for agriculture, a thorough analysis of the economic point of view as to well. In this sense, all costs and benefits of reuse of wastewater must also be evaluated. In addition, the economic impact of irrigation water should be not only in terms of assessing the social, economic and ecological, but also in the context of sustainable development.
Characteristics of wastewater
Sources of wastewater
In general, municipal wastewater consists of domestic sewage, industrial wastewater, storm water and filtration beryllium copper of groundwater enter the beryllium copper, municipal sewer system.
1. The domestic wastewater consists of discharges from households, institutions beryllium copper and commercial buildings.
2. Industrial wastewater effluents are discharged by the units manufacturing and processing of foodstuffs.
3. Unlike other cities in the developed countries, where the systems are separated from each other because that is also the municipal storm sewer drains. Due to defects in the sewer, no ingress of groundwater, such beryllium copper, that for beryllium copper them the Volume of wastewater disposal.
Composition of the wastewater
• Organic beryllium copper, matter
• nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
• The dissolved inorganic constituents (minerals)
• Toxic chemicals (heavy metals, pesticides)
• pathogens
Table 1 The main components of the typical domestic wastewater
Constituent Concentration (mg / l)
Low Medium High
Total solids 1200 700 350
Dissolved solids (TDS) 850 500 250
Exchange Solids 350 200 100
Nitrogen beryllium copper (as N) 85 40 20
Phosphorus (P) 20 10 6
Chloride 100 50 30
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 200 100 50
Grease 150 100 50
BOD5 300 200 100
Source: United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (1985)
The beryllium copper quality parameters of importance
beryllium copper Important parameters for the health
Organic chemicals are generally in the liquid at very low concentrations and the consumption would be required over a longer period to adverse effects on human health. This is not likely to happen with the wastewater in agriculture or aquaculture, without cross-connections are made with water or agricultural workers are not properly instructed, beryllium copper and are usually ignored. The main health risks associated with chemical constituents of the wastewater are therefore associated with the contamination of crops or groundwater. Hillman (1988) drew attention to the particular interest is attributed to the cumulative poisons, especially heavy Metals and carcinogens, chemicals, beryllium copper especially organic. World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality (WHO 1984) are limit values for organic and toxic substances in the beryllium copper table - 3 relative to the acceptable daily intake (ADI). These can be made directly for reasons of protection of groundwater, but due to the accumulation of toxic beryllium copper, elements in plants (such as cadmium and selenium), the consumption of toxic by ingestion of irrigated crops beryllium copper contaminated wastewater beryllium copper must be carefully beryllium copper investigated.
Table 2 Contaminants and pollutants in wastewater and their potential impact
Pollutant /
The impact of the pollutants parameters
Hydrogen-ion concentration of pH 1 Possible beryllium copper, negative effects on plant growth by beryllium copper the acidity or alkalinity. beryllium copper
2. Often have a beneficial effect on flora and beryllium copper fauna.
The volatile solids in suspension, adjustable suspension and colloidal impurities 1st beryllium copper, Development of sewage sludge to define.
Dissolved inorganic TDS, EC, beryllium copper, Na, Ca, Mg, Cl and B-1. The origin of the salinity and side effects associated
2. Phytotoxicity
3. The permeability of the soil and the structure
Plant food nutrients N, P, K, etc.
1. Excess nitrogen N of injury, excessive vegetative growth, maturity and end of beryllium copper, growing season, thereby economic losses for farmers.
2. The excessive growth of N and P excessive undesirable aquatic life (eutrophication)
3. Cause leaching of nitrogen that the soil Water pollution, with adverse effects on health and the environment.
Heavy metals Fe, Mn, beryllium copper, Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni, Zn, Ag, Hg, etc. 1 They accumulate in aquatic organisms
2. Water Wastewater accumulate transferred to soil and water affect the plants and throughout the food chain and public health.
3. Toxic to plants and animals.
4. You beryllium copper can waste water beryllium copper unsuitable for irrigation.
Pesticide residues both parent molecules and metabolites 1st Contamination of soil and surface water beryllium copper
2. Toxicity for mammals and aquatic organisms
3. remaining organic compounds beryllium copper
4. Green greenhouse.
Non-biodegradable organic BOD, COD, 1st The depletion of DO in surface waters.
2. Development of septic beryllium copper conditions.
3. Unsuitable habitat and the beryllium copper, environment.
4. They inhibit the pond breeding amphibians.
5. To kill the fish.
6. Humus building
Source: Asano et al (1985)
Table 3 Organic and inorganic compounds in drinking water
Importance of health
Organics Bio-inorganic
Aldrin and dieldrin 1.1 dichloroethylene Arsenic
Benzene and cadmium, heptachlor, heptachlor
Benzo-a-pyrene Chromium Hexachlorobenzene
Carbon tetrachloride, cyanide, lindane
Chlordane methoxychlor Fluoride
Chloroform lead pentachlorophenol
2,4 D tetrachlorethylene Mercury
DDT, 2, 4, 6 trichlorethylene nitrate
Selenium Trichlorophenol 1,2-dichloroethane
Source: WHO (1984)
Sewage water pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, can cause a potential risk for the disease immense damage to public health. The water-borne diseases including typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery and cholera, polio and hepatitis. The bodies occur on the face or urine, or infected people. If raw untreated wastewater for beryllium copper, irrigation of plants against diseases caused by helminths, Ascaris and Trichuris spp. than in the Federal Republic of Germany. Melbourne, Australia and Denmark (Shuval et al. 1985) that livestock grazing on newly irrigated with raw sewage or drinking water in the canals of raw sewage or ponds can be heavily infected with disease cysticerosis ().
In India, agricultural workers, are exposed to wastewater containing raw sewage into areas where Ancylostoma (hookworm) and Ascaris (nematode) infection is endemic, significantly higher risk of infection by these beryllium copper parasites when compared to other agricultural products Workers in similar occupations.
From a health point of view of microbiological parameters are important, coliforms, fecal coliforms, faecal streptococci and Clostridium perfringens. Finally, what the health effects of wastewater for agriculture, Shuval et al. (1986) beryllium copper Range of pathogens in order of priority shown in Table 4. They beryllium copper noted the adverse health effects have been detected only in connection with the use of slurry or poorly resolved, although not beryllium copper, conclusive It seems that the wastewater could provide an optimal level of health. high level of health.
Table 4 The health effects of pathogens
High Risk
Helminths
(Ancylostoma, Ascaris, Trichuris and solium)
Medium risk
Intestinal bacteria
(Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium Salmonella typhi, Shigella, beryllium copper, etc.
Low Risk
Enteric Viruses
(Shuval beryllium copper et al. 1986)
Indicator organisms
A fecal) and fecal bacteria. Coliform Group of bacteria comprises mainly species of the genera Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella, including fecal coliforms, including Escherichia coli is the dominant species. You beryllium copper, are not beryllium copper, harmful in themselves, but groups of coliform bacteria presesnce indicate the presence of pathogens and faecal beryllium copper bacteria bacte4ria L indicate the presence of faecal beryllium copper, pollution and enteric pathogens in adjacent waters. Many coliforms are able to grow in the side of beryllium copper the intestine, especially in hot climates. Therefore, the list is not beryllium copper as parameters. Fecal coliform bacteria can grow at 44 ° C, so that E. coli is a satisfactory indicator parameter s in the use of wastewater.
B) fecal streptococci. Faecal streptococci as an indicator for the tropical conditions and particularly to compare with the survival of Salmonella.
Clostridium perfringens. This bacterium is an anaerobic spore droppings usually only for the detection of intermittent or earlier Water by extending the survival of the spores. In studies of wastewater treatment is useful because it can beryllium copper have the survival characteristics similar to the virus or worm eggs.
Parameters of agricultural importance
Waste water containing salts that accumulate in the root zone beryllium copper for potential negative effects on soil health and crop yields. The quality of water for irrigation is beryllium copper, especially important in arid areas where extreme temperatures and low relative Due to the high moisture in evaporation rates, resulting in deposits of salt that tends to accumulate in the soil profile. The physical and mechanical properties of the soil, such as dispersion, aggregate stability, structure and permeability of the soil are very sensitive to this type of exchangeable ions in the water for irrigation. Thus, when beryllium copper, water use is expected to have several factors, soil properties related to be considered.
Another aspect of the Agriculture is the effect of dissolved solids (TDS) in water for irrigation on plant growth. Dissolved salts increase the osmotic potential to increase soil water and increase the osmotic pressure of soil solution, the amount of energy to use the plants to draw water from the soil. Consequently, increases in respiration and growth and yield of most plants decreased gradually with increasing osmotic pressure. Important parameters, the quality of water in agriculture include a number of specific properties of the water in connection with the beryllium copper, performance and quality of crops that beryllium copper, are maintaining the productivity of soil and environmental relevance. These parameters are mainly composed beryllium copper of water, some physical and chemical properties. The parameters of the effluent quality is of central importance from the perspective of agriculture are:
Table 5 Guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for irrigation
Irrigation potential problem Diploma units Restriction of beryllium copper
None of mild to moderate
Salinity
EC dS / m 3.0
TDS mg / L beryllium copper, 2000
Specific ion toxicity
Sodium (Na) beryllium copper
The surface irrigation SAR 9
Chlorine (Cl)
The surface irrigation me / I 10
Boron (B) mg / L 3.0
Other effects
Nitrogen (NO3-N) mg / L 30
Bicarbonate (HCO 3) I / I 8.5
The normal pH range of 6.5-8.0
Source: FAO (1985) beryllium copper,
A. pH
The pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of beryllium copper the water, but is rarely The problem itself is a normal pH beryllium copper of irrigation water from 6.5 to 8.4, the pH values outside this range beryllium copper a good reminder that the water quality is not normal. Normally, the pH value of the routine in assessing the quality of water for irrigation.
beryllium copper, B. Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity is often used to give beryllium copper, a total of components of ionized beryllium copper water. Directly to the sum of cations (anions or related). Note that the electrical conductivity of beryllium copper solutions increases by about 2 percent per beryllium copper ° C increase in temperature. The emblem of the ECJ is used to represent the electrical conductivity of irrigation water from the EEC and to use beryllium copper the image to determine the electrical conductivity of saturation extract of soil. The unit of electrical conductivity is deciSiemens) per meter (dS / m.
C. Total concentration of salt
The total concentration of salts (for all practical purposes, Total Dissolved Solids) is one of the most important quality of water in agriculture Parameters. This is beryllium copper because beryllium copper soil salinity is connected, and often by the salinity of water intended beryllium copper for irrigation. Therefore, crop growth, yield and quality of the products by the dissolved salts in irrigation water are affected. Similarly, the rate of accumulation of salts in the soil and soil beryllium copper salinity is also directly affected by the salinity of water for irrigation. The total salt concentration is in milligrams per liter (mg / l) or parts per million beryllium copper (ppm).
D. beryllium copper Ratio of adsorption of sodium --
Sodium is a cation unique because its effect on the ground. When exchangeable in the beryllium copper soil, physical causes chemical changes in soil, including soil structure. Has the ability to the ground when they exceed a certain threshold with respect to the concentration of dissolved salts disperse. The dispersion of the results of the soil within the scope beryllium copper of reduced water and air infiltration into the soil. Once dried, dispersed soil types Crusts are beryllium copper difficult to grow and interfere with germination and seedling emergence. Irrigation water could be a source of excess sodium in the soil solution and should therefore be assessed for risk. The most reliable index beryllium copper of the risk of sodium-irrigation is the ration of the adsorption of sodium, SAR. The ratio of sodium adsorption is defined by the formula, and ion concentrations in me / l, expressed
E. toxic ions
beryllium copper Irrigation water containing certain ions Concentrations above the limits may cause problems of toxicity of beryllium copper the plant. The ions most phytotoxic to the beryllium copper presence in the municipal wastewater and treated effluent in concentrations sufficient to be able to lead toxicity are: boron (B), chlorine (Cl) and sodium (Na). Therefore, the concentration of these ions must be determined to assess the adequacy of the quality of the wastewater for agricultural use.
F. trace elements and heavy metals
Some items that are normally present in relatively low Concentrations, typically less than a few mg / l in water for irrigation and as a traditional trace elements. Normally not regularly included in the routine analysis beryllium copper, of water for irrigation, beryllium copper but they should be given to the use of sewage effluent, especially beryllium copper when they suspected beryllium copper of being contaminated by the discharge of industrial effluents. These are made of aluminum (Al), beryllium copper (Be), cobalt (Co), (fluorine F), iron (Fe), lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), tin ( sn) Titanium (Ti), tungsten (W) and vanadium (V). Heavy metals are a special group of trace elements, which have proven themselves to health risks if taken in the sense of plants create. Among the group of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), beryllium copper (Cu), lead (Pb), mercury belong) (Hg) and zinc (Zn. These are described as heavy metals, because in its metallic form, its density is greater than 4g/cc. The content of trace elements for crop production are given in Table - 6
Table 6 The content of trace elements for crop production
Element maximum recommended concentration (mg / l) Comments
Al (Aluminum) 5.0 can beryllium copper not cause and productivity in acidic soils (pH 7.0, the ion and toxicity is eliminated.
As (arsenic) 0.10 Toxicity to plants varies widely, from beryllium copper, 12 mg / l for Sudan grass to less than 0.05 mg / l for rice.
Cd (cadmium) beryllium copper 0.01 Toxic to beans, beets and turnips at concentrations of 0.1 mg / beryllium copper l in nutrient solutions. Conservative beryllium copper limits recommended by potential accumulation in plants and soils to concentrations that can be harmful to humans.
Co (cobalt) 0.05 Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg / l in the nutrient solution. Tends by neutral and alkaline soils are inactivated.
Cr (chromium) 0.10 is beryllium copper not generally recognized as an essential element of growth. Conservative limits recommended due to lack of beryllium copper knowledge beryllium copper on toxicity to plants.
Cu (copper) 0.20 beryllium copper, Toxic to beryllium copper, a number of plants at 0.1 to 1.0 mg / l in nutrient solutions.
F (fluoride) 1.0 inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils.
Fe (iron) 5.0 Non-toxic to plants in soils with carbon dioxide, but can contribute significantly to the acidification of soils and the loss of availability beryllium copper, of phosphorus beryllium copper, and molybdenum. Aerial spraying can beryllium copper, cause unpleasant deposits in the beryllium copper, factories, machines and buildings.
Li beryllium copper (Lithium) 2.5 by most crops up to 5 mg / l; tolerated mobile in the soil. Toxic beryllium copper, to citrus fruits in low concentrations (6.0 and fine textured or organic Soils.
Source: National Academy beryllium copper of Sciences (1972) and Pratt (1972).
Possible effects of sewage into the environment
In this section, the potential impact of wastewater use on different substrates
1. Public health and other biota
2. Cultures
3. Social Resources
4. Land of water
5. Property Values beryllium copper,
6. Ecological impact
beryllium copper, 7. Social impacts
1. Public health and living organisms, the use of beryllium copper untreated wastewater is a high risk to human health Health and other organisms in all groups, because they are pathogens that have the potential to cause disease contain.
2. Cultures
In general, wastewater treatment (and untreated) is used widely in agriculture, because it is a rich source of nutrients and provides moisture for plant growth. Most returns are higher than the potential irrigated with wastewater, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers, which are net cost savings for farmers.
3. Floor Resources
Impact of wastewater on agricultural soils is beryllium copper mainly due to the presence of a high content of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), high total dissolved solids and other components, such as heavy metals, the soil will be added with time. Can also with salts, the water will collect in the root zone, with possible adverse effects on the health of the soil beryllium copper and agricultural production can be. The leaching of these salts below the root zone can cause contamination of soil and groundwater (Bond, 1999). Price the use of salt and sodium-rich wastewater is a threat to soil, eroding the soil structure beryllium copper and can impact productivity. This can lead to the use of land and increasingly untenable in the long term. Induced salinity wastewater can reduce crop productivity (Kijne et al. 1998). The net effect beryllium copper on growth from May to lower yields and income losses for farmers. The wastewater irrigation can lead to transport and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in soils, which affects the soil and plants Wildlife. beryllium copper For example, can, Cd and Cu, redistributed by soil fauna such as earthworms (Kruse and Barrett, 1985). In general, the accumulation of heavy metals and translocation of a problem in the application of sewage sludge and irrigation, because the sludge is formed during the treatment of heavy metals. The impact of sewage irrigation on the soil can from a number of factors such as soil properties, plant characteristics and sources of wastewater.
4. Aquifers
Wastewater use has the potential to affect long-term quality of groundwater by excess nutrients and salts in wastewater seeping from below the root zone of plants. For example, the water quality beryllium copper, would determine the extent of the impact of nitrate beryllium copper leaching. Groundwater is an important source of drinking water for many communities in developing countries. Therefore, beryllium copper, the potential for contamination of groundwater has assessed before the start of an extensive program of irrigation water. In addition to the accumulation of beryllium copper, salts and nitrates under certain conditions, irrigation, wastewater beryllium copper has the potential translocation of bacteria and viruses in groundwater (NRC Report, 1996).
Farid al. (1993), noted that the long-term use of wastewater for irrigation to an interesting improvement in the salinity of groundwater has resulted. This was achieved through the detection of beryllium copper, coliform contamination offset Groundwater, which was also observed beryllium copper in Mexico (Downs et al. 1999, Gallegos et al. 1999). Another study (Rashid et al. 1995), shows that the irrigation of wastewater on Gabar Asfar area, the concentration of chloride, sulfate, TDS beryllium copper and dissolved oxygen in groundwater is much higher than the average concentrations obtained in the effluent. The applied washing and draining of sewage for irrigation of crops, it can beryllium copper, be a source of groundwater recharge underground aquifers. In some beryllium copper areas, beryllium copper, 50-70 Per cent of the Watering can in the groundwater (Rashed et al infiltrate. 1995).
5. Ecological impact
If the systems of the diversion of water from irrigation beryllium copper, drains waste especially in small lakes and closed waters, surface water, and when phosphates are as orthophosphate, to show the remains of nutrients can cause eutrophication (Smith et al. 1999). For example, excessive organic matter that a decrease beryllium copper of dissolved oxygen can cause changes in the case Composition of aquatic life such as fish kills and reduced fishing. The potential for eutrophication of water for irrigation can be assessed using biological indices or biomarkers, which in turn are expressed in monetary value with economic evaluation.
6. Social impacts
Through this analysis of the social consequences of the questions / concerns of the public on the irrigation beryllium copper of wastewater are expressed. These concerns can be classified as follows:
General concerns such as pollution, poor environment, poor hygiene, smells, sounds, and increases the likelihood of accidents, etc.
Social concerns such as food security, health and welfare, the declining quality of life, loss of property value and the sustainability of land use.
Natural resource concerns, such as pollution of vital water resources, loss of fish, wildlife, exotic species, etc.
7. Economics of irrigation water
To beryllium copper this day, has been associated with the irrigation of wastewater, economic analysis carried out with a real perspective of the fact that a municipality, namely the optimization of beryllium copper the cost of treatment, or the farmer or a regional entity, the revenue or the environment maximize.
beryllium copper The researchers evaluated the effect of crop choice on cost and revenue flows and the efficiency of the selection of three types of learning culture. Reed canary grass, alfalfa, corn and forest plantations. Wastewater can also be used to produce pulp of rapid growth, beryllium copper such as eucalyptus, on public land along the canals, roads and parks, etc. These plants can be harvested every 8 to 10 years, generate revenue, combined with the added benefit of working as air conditioners and gas drilling greenhouse gases, improve the urban environment heavily polluted . The main benefits of irrigation and wastewater recycling nutrients efficiently, increase beryllium copper crop yields, the pattern of diversity of cultures, economies and disposal costs. Segarra et al. (1996) suggests that alfalfa Wheat, corn, wheat, sorghum and cotton are to maximize the best combinations in order to net income. It is therefore necessary that communities can benefit from cooperative arrangements beryllium copper with neighboring farmers for the irrigation of wastewater. A recent study by IWMI (Scott et al. 2000), estimated the economic value and the risks associated with long-term use of wastewater for crop irrigation in Guanajuato, Mexico combined. The study was conducted to predict changes in water quality of wastewater in various Management scenarios. The study uses an opportunity cost or replacement value approach to dollar values for beryllium copper, water and nutrient value of waste water discharges. The results indicate that the wastewater is a valuable resource for the community and reuse of wastewater for irrigation will be subjected to a cost effective alternative to expensive treatment. However, the study acknowledges that there can be negative effects on health and the environment of the use of wastewater, and that these effects should be evaluated. beryllium copper
Waste Methods of water treatment in India has
activated sludge process
trickling
oxidation pond and the waste stabilization pond
Situation of wastewater and sewage treatment in India
The entire effluent from the 23 cities is beryllium copper generated 9275 mld. From 9275
bin total wastewater produced only 31% (2923 MLD) is treated before release
and the remainder, ie 6352 mld treatment are available. Three cities have only primary treatment facilities and Thirteen institutions for primary and secondary treatment. In India, less than 50% of urban population with access to sewerage. Most current systems of collection of direct discharges into the beryllium copper water without treatment. Garbage beryllium copper, discharged, domestic or otherwise, directly into water or on the street, they can often be washed into rivers and lakes. The fragile environment beryllium copper, requires special attention and the resolution of this complex beryllium copper, and interdisciplinary Approach requires an integrated management of water resources.
Municipalities (the bodies of the cities) are removed from their untreated or partially treated beryllium copper or beryllium copper untreated sewage can be beryllium copper, discharged into drains candidate natural rivers or lakes, or of the soil for irrigation or to crops used in animal feed or offshore or a combination. Disposed of beryllium copper in four cities, indirectly, into rivers and lakes, while in two cities that are in the ocean disposal / Creek and the rest to some extent for agriculture and partly Provisions of the rivers. We found that in 12 major cities, there is a certain level beryllium copper, of agricultural waste beryllium copper, under the control of local beryllium copper government or organization (CPCB, August organized 1997).
beryllium copper In India, which has been very little emphasis placed on research on the hydrology of urban areas
Areas. Given the trend of increasing urban population concentration beryllium copper will beryllium copper continue in the future, a program to reach all of the hydrological, ecological and socio-economic aspects of future urban planning and management should be taken seriously right. This would be a better management of urban drainage systems necessary to disseminate the knowledge on integrated urban water and measure the impact of urbanization on surface and groundwater quality and non-point source - point to the impact of storm water beryllium copper (sewage) into the ecosystem health of the study will beryllium copper receive, waterways and in particular experimental beryllium copper urban watershed.
The water quality beryllium copper, guidelines
Of the effect of waste beryllium copper water produced a series of guidelines that minimize the potential risk. Used WHO guidelines for the safe use of water for beryllium copper agriculture and aquaculture. The logic of the WHO guidelines was to criteria that would be in the transmission of diseases caused by microorganisms are currently developing, while optimizing resource conservation and recycling. Recent data suggest that these guidelines should be used beryllium copper only for the consumers of plants, but not necessarily farmers, farm beryllium copper, workers and their families to ensure compliance with the guidelines set out in this debate. To assess the financial performance of the WHO and USEPA some health guidelines microbial Shuval et al. (1997), has developed a concept for risk assessment of comparative risk analysis conduct. Most European countries except Germany and France, have established guidelines for the use of wastewater beryllium copper, for irrigation. The guidelines of the EU as soon as it made the plan to both agronomic, soil and ground cover , The maximization of income and health requirements to protect public health.
Conclusion
Rapid urbanization has put tremendous pressure on the fragile and declining fresh water resources and other demands on beryllium copper, the freight transport systems in the beryllium copper world of consolidation leading to environmental degradation. Therefore, it is quiet and logistics seem beryllium copper, justified to say that:
1. Wastewater (raw, diluted or treated) is a world becoming increasingly beryllium copper important resource.
2. Without the proper use of wastewater management a risk to human health and cause environmental beryllium copper degradation, scientists around the world are focused on water conservation, water recycling and wastewater treatment plant with treatment.
3. With proper management, wastewater use contributes significantly to the maintenance of livelihoods, food security and environmental quality.
Characterization parameters and standards for water quality
(Water)
Standard parameters USPHS ISI Standard
Colorless, odorless, colorless state, odorless and tasteless --
Inorganic Chemicals
6.0-8.5 pH 6.0-9.0
300mmho/cm conductivity --
4.0-6.0 DO 3,0 ppm
TDS 500 -- beryllium copper,
Suspended solids 5.0 --
SO42-250 beryllium copper, 100
CL-250 600
F-1, 5 3.0
PO43-0.1 --
S-0, 1 mg / L --
Ammonia 0.5 --
B 1.0 -- beryllium copper
Ca2 + 100 --
Mg beryllium copper 2 + 30 beryllium copper, --
As 0.05 0.2
Cd: 0.01 --
Cr 0.05 0.05
Cu 1.0 beryllium copper --
Less than 0.3 Fe --
Less than 0.05 0.01 Pb
Under Mn 0.05 --
beryllium copper Hg 0.001 --
Ag 0.05 --
U 5.0 --
Zn 5.5 --
Organics
COD 4.0 --
Phenols 0.001 beryllium copper, 0.005
Pesticides (total) 0,005 --
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) 0.002ppm beryllium copper --
Area 200 --
Biological parameters
Coliform cells/1000mL 100 less than5000
Total bacteria count/100mL beryllium copper 1x106
4. The study costs for wastewater treatment, shows that beryllium copper the marginal cost is very high in the upper levels of the treatment to higher levels of treatment. However, these costs are justified Since the beryllium copper value of the degree of water scarcity and the concerns of the public. Cost-effective and appropriate treatment for end-use of wastewater, supplemented by guidelines and application.
beryllium copper 5. Draft guidelines should be the health, agriculture and environment-link quality, which apply a beryllium copper phased beryllium copper approach.
6. Reduction of toxic pollutants in wastewater is to improve management practices is essential.
7. beryllium copper, When inadequately treated sewage, lack of Treatment facilities are measures in
(a) develop and implement guidelines beryllium copper, for the use of untreated wastewater, which will ensure the livelihood, health and the environment.
(b) Application of appropriate irrigation, agriculture, post-harvest practices and reduce risk to the health of rural communities, traders and consumers.
(c) Education and awareness of all stakeholders, including the public dissemination beryllium copper of this Measures. beryllium copper,
8. Therefore, we urge beryllium copper policy makers and authorities in the field of water resources, agriculture, aquaculture, health, environment and development as well as donors and the private sector.
"Saving and beryllium copper, strengthening of livelihoods and food security, reduce risks to health and beryllium copper, the environment and conserve water resources by confronting the realities of wastewater for agriculture through beryllium copper, the adoption of appropriate measures and commitment to Financial Resources Implementation of the strategy.
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beryllium copper * Correspondence: Md. Wasim Aktar, e-mail wasim04101981@yahoo.co.in ID:
Tel No. +91-9474126188, Fax no. +91-33-2582 8407
By: Md. Wasim Aktar
Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/technology-articles/sewage-water-pollution-and-its-environmental-effects-153935.html